Inquiry on Meaningful Learning
Problem Statement and Research Question
One could say that education serves the purpose of preparing people for being contributing members of society. In the last century the human world has been changing at an accelerated pace. For example, Barron (2008) provides highlights on changes in the job market that relate to education. Such as, in the 1900’s most jobs required low skill levels and people to be able to follow instructions. In the 21st century much has changed, with people now requiring specialized knowledge and skills in an employment market that is rapidly changing. For example, consider that the top ten ‘in demand’ jobs listed in 2010 did not exist in 2004 (Barron, 2008). Now a days, education has the task of preparing people to be ready for change and life-long learning (Livingstone, 2002). In the Information Age, being able to remember a fact is less useful than being able to collect, analyze and synthesize knowledge (Barron, 2008). Many members of the workforce today need to be able to be able to transfer their knowledge and skills to use in new situations (Barron, 2008). Additionally, work environments often require effective communication and collaboration skills, as well as the ability to be adaptable and flexible (Barron, 2008). What kind of education is capable of cultivating these kinds of collaborative, problem solving and critically thinking members of society?
To cultivate the skills and aptitudes required in our modern world, education should align itself with the needs of society. For example, meaningful learning is a goal-oriented teaching philosophy that fosters constructive, intentional, authentic and cooperative learning processes (Jonassen, 1994). Meaningful learning occurs when new knowledge is linked with prior knowledge, and integrated within a context of knowledge (Mayer, 2002). A pioneer in the field, Ausubel (1963) emphasized that in order to achieve a sound understanding it was important for students to be able to link concepts, information and processes. Meaningful learning is often juxtaposed to rote learning, because rote learning primarily involves memorizing facts without necessarily connecting them (Cavallo, Blickenstaff, Rozman & Walker, 2007). An indication that meaningful learning has occurred is when knowledge can be used to solve problems, answer new questions, and understand a connected subject matter more deeply. This process is called knowledge transfer (Mayer, 2002), and is what I see as a key skill to foster success in the 21st century.
This leads to the specific question I wish to address in my inquiry. How as educators can we cultivate meaningful learning? In my inquiry I wish to address what constitutes meaningful learning, as well as explore various strategies that promote meaningful learning. The inquiry on meaningful learning is directly related to my wish to be an engaging educator who is able to deliver student-centered learning. My plan is to create a tool-kit of activities that I can start implementing in my teaching praxis, while being aware of the theoretical implications.
Meaningful Learning: Concept, Process and Strategies
Meaningful Learning Theory
A simple definition of meaningful learning is that it requires people to link new knowledge with existing knowledge. To further elaborate on this, meaningful learning occurs when a person is presented with new information (visual, audio) and the brain is able to link this knowledge with existing schema, or constructed collections of information (Crossland, 2011). This integrates a constructivist perspective of learning where knowledge is constructed (Jonassen, 1994). “Meaningful learning is necessarily social, collaborative, intentional, authentic, and active. The result of meaningful learning lies in its cognitive residue, the learner’s mental model” (Jonassen & Strobel, 2006).
Constructivist learning environments
From a constructivist perspective knowledge is constructed to make sense of the world (Jonassen, 1994). Active cognitive processes, include: drawing attention to relevant information, integrating new incoming information with existing knowledge, and fostering mental organization of information into coherent representations, or mental models (Jonassen, 1994). In a constructivist learning environment multiple representations of a complex reality are provided, and oversimplifications avoided. Also, authentic tasks rooted in a relevant context are emphasized rather than abstract instruction out of context. Examples of this are case-based learning or real-world settings, in contrast to pre-determined sequence of instruction. This should enable context and content dependent knowledge construction, instead of knowledge reproduction. Futhermore, collaborative construction of knowledge through social interactions is encouraged, avoiding competition among learners for recognition. Finally, a constructivist learning environment emphasizes thoughtful reflection on the learning experience (Jonassen, 1994).
Cognitive Psychology of Meaningful Learning
David Ausubel (1918-2008) was a cognitive psychologist who developed the “Assimilation Theory of Learning” in the early 1960’s and was an active pioneer in meaningful learning research (Ausubel.org). Based on Piaget’s genetic epistemology, Ausubel’s Assimilation Theory assumes that new learning experiences need to be anchored and integrated with pre-existing knowledge structures, or schema, of the long-term memory (Ausubel, 1962). Schema can also be defined as meaningful collections of information (Crossland, 2011). Ausubel visualized knowledge as being organized in a hierarchal order by our brain, where the most general ideas were the main anchor points that more detailed knowledge was organized under, or in his words subsumed (Ivie, 1998). According to Ausubel, having clear and well organized cognitive structure is one of the most significant contributors toward a learner’s ability for acquiring new knowledge in the same field (Ivie, 1998). Ausubel writes that if he had to reduce all of educational psychology to one principle, it would be that “the most important single factor influencing learning is what the student already knows” (Ausubel, Novak & Hanesian, 1968, p. 163).
Rote vs Meaningful Learning
Ausubel differentiates between rote and meaningful learning. In rote learning no effort is made to link new knowledge with prior learning (Ausubel, 2000; Mayer, 2002). It involves arbitrary, verbatim incorporation of new knowledge, and no effort is made to link new knowledge with prior learning. This makes materials learned through rote learning vulnerable to forgetting, interference, and disempowerment (Ausubel, 2000). Whereas, meaningful learning integrates new knowledge into existing cognitive structures supporting knowledge retention and transfer (Ausubel, 2000; Mayer, 2002). Knowledge retention is the ability to remember knowledge learned in the past, and is an indicator of meaningful learning. Knowledge transfer is the ability to used retained knowledge to solve problems and facilitate new learning in the future (Mayer, 2002). The promotion of knowledge retention and transfer is what Mayer (2002) outlines as the two most important educational goals.
Phases of Learning
There are several educational theories that utilize stages or phases. Most notably, Piaget’s theory of cognitive development (Piaget, 1976). Fundamental to theories on learning phases is that learning is dynamic and changes as it progresses (Fardanesh, 2002). In general there are three phases or stages of learning that are aligned with the level of understanding a learner may have with a complex body of knowledge, such as novice, intermediate or expert (Fardanesh, 2002). Rumelhart & Norman (1978) called these three phases of learning: accretion, tuning and restructuring. Shuell (1990) identified these three phases as: initial, intermediate and terminal. In addition, Farnham-Diggory (1994) provide three learning models, namely behavior, developmental and apprenticeship. Which also align with the behavioral, cognitive and constructive learning approaches.
Going through the phases of learning from novice, intermediate to expert, I will provide a synthesis of the learning phases proposed by Rumelhart & Norman (1978) and Shuell (1990). In the initial phase, a novice may approach learning a new body of knowledge by gathering information and adding it to existing cognitive frameworks, or schema. Rumelhart & Norman (1978) called this “accretion”. This may be realized through audio-visual learning and memory aids, such as rote learning (repetition), mnemonics, etc (Fardanesh, 2002; Shuell, 1990). The intermediate step involves recognizing relationships and linking concepts that may result in modifying existing schema, called “tuning” by Rumelhart & Norman (1978). Strategies for the intermediate phase include organizational lists, cognitive concept mapping, and Venn diagrams. The terminal phase refines the processes of the intermediate learning phase, and can result in the development of new schema that bring clarity of comprehension; called “restructuring” by Rumelhart & Norman (1978). This is the phase for active problem solving, performance tasks, and collaboration (Fardanesh, 2002).
One major goal of an educator is to enhance learning development. The task for educators is to be aware of learning phases and be able to provide phase appropriate strategies that may foster the learning development process (Fardanesh, 2002). For meaningful learning to occur the ideal situation is to scaffold the learner to the terminal learning phase, where new and existing knowledge can be linked and restructured. These would include learning strategies such as problem solving and performance tasks (Fardanesh, 2002). To scaffold learners, intermediate learning phase strategies that link knowledge, such as concept mapping and Venn diagrams, could help bridge learning to a higher level of knowledge integration and comprehension.
Advanced organizers
An advanced organizer is a cognitive instructional strategy to promote meaningful learning. The aim is to activate prior knowledge critical to learning new materials, and bridge the gap between what the learner knows and will be learning (Ausubel, 1960). In simplest term, it provides the big picture under which details will follow. According to Ausubel’s Assimilation Theory, “a cognitive structure that is clear and well organized facilitates the learning and retention of new information” (Ivie, 1998). Advanced organizers are presented prior to direct instruction in order to facilitate the learner being able to anchor new incoming knowledge with existing knowledge (Mayer, 1979). Thus, advance organizers act as an aid to explain, organize, integrate, and interrelate the material they precede (Ausubel, 1960). Generally, an advanced organizers focuses on what is important and essential to learning, and are organized from general to more specific. Advanced organizers also focus on engaging higher-order thought processes of Bloom’s taxonomy, such as applying, analyzing, and evaluating.
According to Joyce, Weil & Calhoun (2000), advance organizers have three phases of activity. Phase I includes presenting the advance organizer, clarifying the aim of the lesson, and prompting awareness of relevant knowledge. Phase II, presents the learning task or material and provides guidance to the logical organization of the learning material using the advanced organizer. In Phase III, elicits the learner to engage with the advance organizer to critically think about the learning materials, such as through pointing out discrepancies or generating their own summaries of learning.
Goochland County Public Schools (Hendron, 2003) has a page providing great descriptions and ample examples of advance organizers. The types of advance organizers include: expository (describes new content), narrative (presents new information in story format), skimming (quick overview of new materials), and graphic organizers (diagrams, concept maps, descriptive patterns, Venn diagrams, etc). Graphic organizers combine language and imagery to help facilitate the learning process. These can include imagery activities that facilitate learners analyze patterns, such as descriptive, time-sequenced, cause and effect, process, episode, concepts, generalization or principles (Hendron, 2003). They can also draw on mental pictures, physical models, drawing, and engaging kinesthetic activity or motion. There are also a wide variety of technology-based organizational tools to help organize information, such as for concept mapping, movie making, photo organization, website design (Hendron, 2003).
Strategies to teach meaningful learning
To increase meaningful learning there are several steps teachers can take that Crossland (2011) recommends. To begin with provide a safe and stimulating learning environment. When introducing a new concept ensure that students have the prior knowledge necessary to make sense of the new concept. In this way, students can actively construct learning which is key to meaningful learning. Fostering a social learning environment through simple activities that include discussion is helpful for students to support each other’s learning process. To facilitate learning help scaffold students’ ideas, bridge knowledge gaps, and foster metacognition. Guiding visualization also help in learning new concepts.
Conclusion
Before starting this inquiry I did not know that the term meaningful learning was the tip of an iceberg that would come with abundant research into the theories, research and practice into how human’s learn and what specifically constitutes meaningful learning. I learned from this inquiry that meaningful learning is based on a theory in cognitive psychology pioneered by the late David Ausubel where knowledge is built or constructed onto prior knowledge. This is also known as a constructive approach in education. In contrast to rote learning, meaningful learning links new knowledge with prior knowledge. More specifically new knowledge is anchored into existing knowledge structures. This was the introduction to the theory of meaningful learning.
Three phases of learning have been proposed as part of the learning process. In the first phase of learning, knowledge is acquired. Then in the second phase, it can be modified, and in the third phase, knowledge is transformed. My own analogy for this is that of a puzzle. Where in the first phase puzzle pieces are acquired like knowledge. Then in the second phase, the puzzle pieces can be connected to form recognizable pictures or knowledge structures. And in the third phase, the skills used to solve this puzzle can be transferred to solve ever more complex problems of this type, or generate new puzzles.
Of the strategies that support meaningful learning, advance organizers are foundational. Advanced organizers provide learners with the big picture that following information can be organized under. They also aim to help anchor new knowledge with existing knowledge structures. Strategies that support meaningful learning include those that make the relevant learning outcomes explicit, help organize information, encourage social learning and higher-order thinking processes and provide opportunities to reflect on learning.
Going back to the initial problem statement that highlighted the need for education to serve the needs of society entering the 21st century. I feel this inquiry provides evidence that meaningful learning is a relevant pedagogy to help develop citizens with the skills needed in a modern society, such as that they are able to think critically, problem-solve, and work cooperatively.
Further Research
While researching meaningful learning, most of the research focused on the cognitive domain of learning. Another area of learning that piqued my interest was the role of the affective domain on learning, and current understanding on how this can promote the receptivity to learning. Affective domains refers to the emotional components of learning (Randall, 1994). It turns out people learn better when they ‘feel’ better. I found this information very insightful on how to support meaningful learning through cultivating a learning environment where stress is reduced, joy increased and novelty abounds. Preliminary findings are noted below.
Cultivating Joyful Education
Neuroscience supports that joyful education can promote learning. Neuroscientist and educator J. Willis (2007) uses the acronym RAD to help educators remember three important concepts in neuroscience to help promote learning. Such as using novelty to promote information transmission through the reticular activing systems. Creating a stress-free learning environment propels information through the amygdala’s affective filter. And, supporting pleasurable associations linked with learning promote the release of dopamine (Willis, 2007).
Willis (2007) goes on to recommend the following teaching strategies that help promote learning through the affective domain. Prioritize information and show student how to discern what is relevant. Make the learning material relevant by connecting to the day to day lives of students through authentic activities. Create positive associations through cooperative work and assessment as learning. Allow students for independent discovery learning where they can practice self-paced learning. And, finally, provide students with breaks. Even a short three-minute break can bring down stress levels. For me this means that meaningful learning in the cognitive domain can be enhanced through strategies that promote learning in the affective domain. And this warrants further investigation.